WHO

Key facts

• Yellow fever is an acute viral haemorrhagic disease transmitted by infected mosquitoes. The “yellow” in the name refers to the jaundice that affects some patients.
• Up to 50% of severely affected persons without treatment will die from yellow fever.
• According to the recent analysis, there are an estimated 84 000–170 000 cases and up to 60 000 deaths due to yellow fever per year.
• The virus is endemic in tropical areas of Africa and Latin America, with a combined population of over 900 million people.
• The number of yellow fever cases has been decreasing over the past 10 years since the launch of Yellow Fever Initiative in 2006.
• There is no specific treatment for yellow fever. Treatment is symptomatic, aimed at reducing the symptoms for the comfort of the patient.
• Vaccination is the most important preventive measure against yellow fever. The vaccine is safe, affordable, and highly effective. A single dose of yellow fever vaccine is sufficient to confer sustained immunity and life-long protection against yellow fever disease and a booster dose of yellow fever vaccine is not needed. The vaccine provides effective immunity within 30 days for 99% of persons vaccinated.

Signs and symptoms

Once contracted, the yellow fever virus incubates in the body for 3 to 6 days, followed by infection that can occur in one or two phases. The first, “acute”, phase usually causes fever, muscle pain with prominent backache, headache, shivers, loss of appetite, and nausea or vomiting. Most patients improve and their symptoms disappear after 3 to 4 days.

However, 15% of patients enter a second, more toxic phase within 24 hours of the initial remission. High fever returns and several body systems are affected. The patient rapidly develops jaundice and complains of abdominal pain with vomiting. Bleeding can occur from the mouth, nose, eyes or stomach. Once this happens, blood appears in the vomit and faeces. Kidney function deteriorates. Half of the patients who enter the toxic phase die within 10 to 14 days, the rest recover without significant organ damage.

Yellow fever is difficult to diagnose, especially during the early stages. It can be confused with severe malaria, dengue hemorrhagic fever, leptospirosis, viral hepatitis (especially the fulminating forms of hepatitis B and D), other hemorrhagic fevers (Bolivian, Argentine and Venezuelan hemorrhagic fevers as well as other Flaviviridae such as the West Nile and Zika viruses) and other diseases, as well as poisoning. Blood tests can detect yellow fever antibodies produced in response to the infection. Several other techniques are used to identify the virus in blood specimens or liver tissue collected after death. These tests require highly trained laboratory staff and specialized equipment and materials.

Populations at risk

At risk are 44 endemic countries in Africa and Latin America, with a combined population of over 900 million. In Africa, an estimated 508 million people live in 31 countries at risk. The remaining population at risk are in 13 countries in Latin America, with Bolivia (Plurinational State of), Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru at greatest risk.

WHO estimates from the early 1990s indicated 200 000 cases of yellow fever and 30 000 deaths globally each year, with 90% occurring in Africa. A recent analysis of African data sources estimates a burden of 84 000–170 000 severe cases and up to 29 000–60 000 deaths due to yellow fever in Africa for the year 2013. Without vaccination, the burden figures would be much higher.

Small numbers of imported cases occur in countries free of yellow fever. Although the disease has never been reported in Asia, the region is at risk because the conditions required for transmission are present there. In the past centuries (17th to 19th), outbreaks of yellow fever were reported in North America (Charleston, New Orleans, New York, Philadelphia) and Europe (France, Ireland, Italy, Portugal, Spain, and United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland).

Transmission

The yellow fever virus is an arbovirus of the flavivirus genus, and the mosquito is the primary vector. It carries the virus from one host to another, primarily between monkeys, from monkeys to humans, and from humans to humans.

Several different species of the Aedes and Haemogogus mosquitoes transmit the virus. The mosquitoes either breed around houses (domestic), in the jungle (wild), or in both habitats (semi-domestic). There are 3 types of transmission cycles.

• Sylvatic (or jungle) yellow fever: In tropical rainforests, yellow fever occurs in monkeys that are infected by wild mosquitoes. The infected monkeys then pass the virus to other mosquitoes that feed on them. The infected mosquitoes bite humans entering the forest, resulting in occasional cases of yellow fever. The majority of infections occur in young men working in the forest (for example, for logging).
• Intermediate yellow fever: In humid or semi-humid parts of Africa, small-scale epidemics occur. Semi-domestic mosquitoes (that breed in the wild and around households) infect both monkeys and people. Increased contact between people and infected mosquitoes leads to transmission. Many separate villages in an area can suffer cases simultaneously. This is the most common type of outbreak in Africa. An outbreak can become a more severe epidemic if the infection is carried into an area populated with both domestic mosquitoes and unvaccinated people.
• Urban yellow fever: Large epidemics occur when infected people introduce the virus into densely populated areas with a high number of non-immune people and Aedes mosquitoes. Infected mosquitoes transmit the virus from person to person.

Treatment

There is no specific treatment for yellow fever, only supportive care to treat dehydration, respiratory failure, and fever. Associated bacterial infections can be treated with antibiotics. Supportive care may improve outcomes for seriously ill patients, but it is rarely available in poorer areas.

Prevention

1. Vaccination

Vaccination is the single most important measure for preventing yellow fever. In high-risk areas where vaccination coverage is low, prompt recognition and control of outbreaks through immunization is critical to prevent epidemics. To prevent outbreaks throughout affected regions, vaccination coverage must reach at least 60% to 80% of a population at risk.

Preventive vaccination can be offered through routine infant immunization and one-time mass campaigns to increase vaccination coverage in countries at risk, as well as for travelers to yellow fever endemic area. WHO strongly recommends routine yellow fever vaccination for children in areas at risk for the disease.

The yellow fever vaccine is safe and affordable, providing effective immunity against yellow fever within 10 days for more than 90% of people vaccinated and within 30 days for 99% of people vaccinated. A single dose of yellow fever vaccine is sufficient to confer sustained immunity and life-long protection against yellow fever disease and a booster dose of yellow fever vaccine is not needed. Serious side effects are extremely rare. Serious adverse events have been reported rarely following immunization in a few endemic areas and among vaccinated travellers (e.g. in Australia, Brazil, Peru, Togo and the United States of America). Scientists are investigating the causes.

In regard to the use of yellow fever vaccine in people over 60 years of age, it is noted that while the risk of yellow fever vaccine-associated viscerotropic disease in persons over 60 years of age is higher than in younger ages, the overall risk remains low. Vaccination for persons over 60 years of age should be administrated after a careful risk-benefit assessment, comparing the risk of acquiring yellow fever versus the risk of a potential serious adverse event following immunization.

The risk of death from yellow fever disease is far greater than the risks related to the vaccine. People who should not be vaccinated include:

• infants aged less than 9 months (with the exception that infants aged 6-9 months should be vaccinated during an epidemic where the risk of disease is higher than the risk of an adverse effect of the vaccine);
• pregnant women – except during a yellow fever outbreak when the risk of infection is high;
• people with severe allergies to egg protein; and
• people with severe immunodeficiency due to symptomatic HIV/AIDS or other causes, or in the presence of a thymus disorder.

Travellers, particularly those arriving to Asia from Africa or Latin America must have a certificate of yellow fever vaccination. If there are medical grounds for not getting vaccinated, International Health Regulations state that this must be certified by the appropriate authorities.

2. Mosquito control

In some situations, mosquito control is vital until vaccination takes effect. The risk of yellow fever transmission in urban areas can be reduced by eliminating potential mosquito breeding sites and applying insecticides to water where they develop in their earliest stages. Application of spray insecticides to kill adult mosquitoes during urban epidemics, combined with emergency vaccination campaigns, can reduce or halt yellow fever transmission, “buying time” for vaccinated populations to build immunity.

Historically, mosquito control campaigns successfully eliminated Aedes aegypti, the urban yellow fever vector, from most mainland countries of Central and South America. However, this mosquito species has re-colonized urban areas in the region and poses a renewed risk of urban yellow fever.

Mosquito control programmes targeting wild mosquitoes in forested areas are not practical for preventing jungle (or sylvatic) yellow fever transmission.

3. Epidemic preparedness and response

Prompt detection of yellow fever and rapid response through emergency vaccination campaigns are essential for controlling outbreaks. However, underreporting is a concern – the true number of cases is estimated to be 10 to 250 times what is now being reported.

WHO recommends that every at-risk country have at least one national laboratory where basic yellow fever blood tests can be performed. One laboratory confirmed case of yellow fever in an unvaccinated population could be considered an outbreak, and a confirmed case in any context must be fully investigated, particularly in any area where most of the population has been vaccinated. Investigation teams must assess and respond to the outbreak with both emergency measures and longer-term immunization plans.

WHO response

WHO is the Secretariat for the International Coordinating Group for Yellow Fever Vaccine Provision (ICG). The ICG maintains an emergency stockpile of yellow fever vaccines to ensure rapid response to outbreaks in high risk countries.

The Yellow Fever Initiative is a preventive control strategy of vaccination led by WHO and supported by UNICEF and National Governments, with a particular focus on most high endemic countries in Africa where the disease is most prominent. The Initiative recommends including yellow fever vaccines in routine infant immunizations (starting at age 9 months), implementing mass vaccination campaigns in high-risk areas for all people aged 9 months and older, and maintaining surveillance and outbreak response capacity.

Between 2007 and 2016, 14 countries have completed preventive yellow fever vaccination campaigns: Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Mali, Senegal, Sierra Leone and Togo. Nigeria and Sudan have been implementing the campaigns. The Yellow Fever Initiative is financially supported by the Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunization (GAVI Alliance), the European Community Humanitarian Office (ECHO), the Central Emergency Response Fund (CERF), Ministries of Health, and the country-level partners.

WHO

The Chinese government has taken the following measures:

• intensifying multi-sectoral coordination and collaboration,
• strengthening surveillance, vector monitoring and risk assessment,
• enhancing clinical management of yellow fever cases,
• conducting vector control activities,
• carrying out public risk communication activities,
• deploying a medical team to Angola to provide yellow fever vaccination to unvaccinated Chinese nationals.

WHO

NY Times

IOM

IOM

IOM Resettles Syrian Refugees from Turkey to Europe Following “Swap” Deal

IOM

Europe-Med-Migration-Response_Sitrep18-7April2016

“….As of 6 April 2016, 175,797 migrants and refugees have arrived to Europe by land and sea routes since the start of 2016, the majority of whom have entered by sea through Greece (152,461) and Italy (19,322).
On 4 April, as part of the EU-Turkey agreement, Greece began deportations of migrants to Turkey. Under heavy security measures on the island of Lesvos and Chios, 202 individuals were deported to Turkey (136 from Lesvos and 66 from Chios).
As of 9 March, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Croatia and Slovenia all closed their borders, shutting down the Western Balkans route. Due to the closure of the route, as of 5 April, the number of migrants and refugees who have been registered in the country since the start of the year remain at 89,623. The number of people remaining at the reception centre in Gevgelija is currently 125, out of which 30 are women, 38 are men and 57 are children. In Tabanovce centre, approximately 1,100 people remain stranded.
In Serbia, new arrivals have also ceased and as of 6 April, the total number of migrants and refugees that have entered the country remain at 90,177.
In Croatia, no new entries have been registered at the Slavonski Brod reception transit centre. Since its opening in November 2015, the Slavonski Brod reception transit centre has accommodated 347,152 migrants and refugees. Currently there are only 111 people hosted in the centre.
On 31 March, the Slovenian Government appointed an interdepartmental working group to coordinate the implementation plan to relocate 567 persons from Italy and Greece and to permanently resettle 20 from Syria. The working group will prepare an accommodation plan for those being resettled as well as an integration plan that will focus on accessing the labour market and the education system.

NY Times

CDC

The Ministry of Health in Angola has reported an ongoing outbreak of yellow fever. At least 1,562 suspected and confirmed cases have been reported nationally, including 225 deaths. The majority of yellow fever cases and deaths have been in Luanda Province. However, cases have been reported throughout the country. The Ministry is working with the World Health Organization to control the outbreak and has been conducting an emergency vaccination campaign in Luanda Province since early February.

The government of Angola requires all travelers older than 9 months of age to show proof of yellow fever vaccination upon arrival. In addition, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends that all travelers to Angola aged 9 months or older be vaccinated against yellow fever.

People who have never been vaccinated against yellow fever should not travel to Angola. Since there is currently a shortage of yellow fever vaccine(http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/news-announcements/yellow-fever-vaccine-shortage-2016), travelers may need to contact a yellow fever vaccine provider well in advance of travel. CDC no longer recommends booster doses of yellow fever vaccine for most travelers. However, Angola is currently a higher-risk setting because of the outbreak, so travelers to Angola may consider getting a booster if their last yellow fever vaccine was more than 10 years ago. For more information, see http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm6423a5.htm.

What is yellow fever?

Yellow fever is a disease caused by a virus, which is spread through mosquito bites. Symptoms take 3–6 days to develop and include fever, chills, headache, backache, and muscle aches. About 15% of people who get yellow fever develop serious illness that can lead to bleeding, shock, organ failure, and sometimes death.

How can travelers protect themselves?

Travelers can protect themselves from yellow fever by getting yellow fever vaccine and preventing mosquito bites.

Get yellow fever vaccine:

• Visit a yellow fever vaccination (travel) clinic(http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/yellow-fever-vaccination-clinics/search.htm) and ask for a yellow fever vaccine.
  • You should receive this vaccine at least 10 days before your trip.
  • After receiving the vaccine, you will receive a signed and stamped International Certificate of Vaccination or Prophylaxis(http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/yellowbook/2016/infectious-diseases-related-to-travel/yellow-fever#4735) (ICVP, sometimes called the “yellow card”), which you must bring with you on your trip.
  • For most travelers, one dose of the vaccine lasts for a lifetime. Consult a travel medicine provider to see if additional doses of vaccine may be recommended for you based on specific risk factors.
  • In rare cases, the yellow fever vaccine can have serious and sometimes fatal side effects. People older than 60 years and people with weakened immune systems might be at higher risk of developing these side effects. Also, there are special concerns for pregnant and nursing women. Talk to your doctor about whether you should get the vaccine.

Prevent mosquito bites:

• Cover exposed skin by wearing long-sleeved shirts and pants.
• Use an EPA-registered insect repellent containing DEET, picaridin, oil of lemon eucalyptus (OLE), or IR3535. Always use as directed.
  • If you are also using sunscreen, apply sunscreen first and insect repellent second.
  • Pregnant and breastfeeding women can use all EPA-registered insect repellents, including DEET, according to the product label.
  • Most repellents, including DEET, can be used on children aged >2 months.
  • Follow package directions when applying repellent on children. Avoid applying repellent to their hands, eyes, and mouth.
• Use permethrin-treated clothing and gear (such as boots, pants, socks, and tents). You can buy pre-treated clothing and gear or treat them yourself:
  • Treated clothing remains protective after multiple washings. See the product information to find out how long the protection will last.
  • If treating items yourself, follow the product instructions carefully.
  • Do not use permethrin directly on skin.
• Stay and sleep in screened or air conditioned rooms.
• Use a bed net if the area where you are sleeping is exposed to the outdoors.

Clinician Information:

• Yellow Fever(http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/yellowbook/2012/chapter-3-infectious-diseases-related-to-travel/yellow-fever.htm) in CDC Health Information for International Travel -“Yellow Book”
• Clinical and Laboratory Guidance
• Diagnostic Testing
• Testing for Vaccine Adverse Events
• Yellow Fever Vaccine Booster Doses

Additional Information:

• FAQ’s about Yellow Fever
• Avoid Bug Bites(http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/page/avoid-bug-bites)-Information for travelers
• Insect Repellent Use and Safety
• Yellow Fever Vaccine Information Statement (VIS)
• Authorized U.S. Yellow Fever Vaccine Centers